Introduction to Combustion and Fire Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Introduction to Combustion and Fire - Case Study Example For example, when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are exposed to high energy sun rays, chlorine and bromine atoms are released. These chlorine/bromine atoms act as catalysts in the breaking up of ozone molecules. Free radicals are atoms or molecules possessing one or more unpaired electrons. Free radicals are formed as intermediaries of reactions. One of the most common free radicals is the hydroxyl free radical (HO∙). Ions, free atoms, and free radicals are reaction intermediaries. While ions are charged species, free radicals are groups containing unpaired electrons, and free atoms are single atoms without charge. Ions can exist in a stable equilibrium, but free atoms and free radicals are highly unstable and react with other atoms or molecules soon after formation. During bond formation, an electron from 2s orbital is moved to 2pz orbital. This process requires a small amount of energy as the energy gap between 2s and 2p orbitals are less. So the new electronic structure is 1s22s12px12py12pz1 Pentane has a molar mass of 72.15 gmol-1. For 1 mole of pentane, mass is 72.15 g. As calculates earlier, at temperature 298.15K and pressure 1.013Ãâ€"105 Pa, the volume of 1 mol of pentane is 2.447Ãâ€"10-2 m3. A reaction where the products are in the most stable state is known as a complete chemical reaction. In the fire, a complete chemical reaction with no fuel and oxygen left is known as a stoichiometric reaction. The reaction mixtures in such a state are stoichiometric mixtures. The stoichiometric oxygen to fuel mass ratio r is determined from the equation. The equivalence ratio () which describes the state of the reactant mixture, is defined as (Quintere, 2006): Concentration is a measure of the packaging of particles per unit volume and its unit is moles per dm3 or moldm-3. A mole is a unit to measure the amount of substance. One mole of a substance contains 6.023Ãâ€"1023 atoms, molecules, or ions.   

Purchasing from local farmers can be beneficial to the environment Essay

Purchasing from local farmers can be beneficial to the environment - Essay Example It has been estimated that food travels 1800 miles on the average (Jackson, 2008) when it is being delivered from the farms to the market. These farms are usually located in other countries that grow certain kinds of food. This 1800 mile travel can give at least 800 kgs of CO2 emissions per travel (Webber and Matthews, 2008). If the food is sourced from a local farm, which is nearer to the market and it would not be imported, it would not contribute much to the CO2 emissions of the food, because less transportation would be involved. Because of this, local farmers can be a great help in providing a sustainable alternative when it comes to marketing farm produce, and at the same time, prove beneficial to the environment. As said before, most foods in the market these days are imported from different countries. According to an article by Andy Jerardo, almost 15% of foods in the markets of the United States are imported. This rate rises continually (Brooks, et al). This means that the i mported food travel at least a thousand miles to get to the consumers’ tables. Because of that mileage, transportation takes a huge part in the marketing of foods. At the same time, the impact of transportation is big when it comes to computing a food’s carbon emissions. It is known that the carbon emission of food starts in farms, especially if livestock is the one being farmed. Since the CO2 emissions from beef and poultry are already big, adding CO2 emissions from the transportation needed from the farm to the market route is already a big factor when considering the impact of food in the environment. Therefore, if the farms are locally available, it is more logical for the people to buy there if they are actually conscious of their environment. This is because nearer farms mean low transportation costs and low carbon emissions. Low transportation costs and emissions mean cheaper food and less environmental stress. Local farming also ensures sustainable economy for farming. Since local farmers are, nearer, with figures playing within 100-150 miles from the food source to the table, the taxes that consumers pay when they buy the produce would ultimately go back to the consumers. Helping the local farms is also a good way to support the local economy since it helps in keeping the money within the market. It does not go out from the local territory, unlike in importation where the consumer pays the farmers from other countries from which the food is imported. Having a healthy local economy is good since it lessens our nation’s dependence to other countries, making the nation stronger. Another point to ponder is that local farming is also beneficial to the health of consumers, not only to the environment. It is logical: since the farms are near, the food is delivered fresh because the food does not spend days, even weeks, in a boat or truck to get transported from point A to point B. It is basically like picking foods right from your own ba ckyard. The sellers also get a reduced packaging costs and storing time because these foods have a great turnover. Having local farms are also a good way in preserving a region’s distinct culture. Since food is an extension of culture, it is inevitable for a local place not to have their own food that gives them their own unique identity. Importation with their foreign flavors, generally overtake the local culture when it comes to food. Having local far

Technology of Ultrasound Scans

Technology of Ultrasound Scans 2.1 Ultrasound 2.1.1 Physics of Ultrasound Sound is a mechanical wave that travels through an elastic medium. Ultrasound (US) is sound at a frequency beyond 20 000 Hz, the limit of human hearing. Bats orientate themselves with the help of US waves at 100 000 Hz. Ultrasound at frequencies of 200 000 Hz is used for navigation. The frequency range of diagnostic US is between 1 and 20 MHz. When sound encounters a boundary between two media of different densities some of the sound bounces back as an echo, a phenomenon called reflection. The rest of the sound continues through the medium but is deflected from its original path, this is called refraction. Acoustic impedance is the resistance of a medium to the propagation of sound and decides how much sound will be reflected at the interface between the media. Some of the energy of the sound is converted by friction into heat when propagating, this loss of energy is called absorption. When ultrasound waves encounter a surface, a small part of their energy is scattered away in random directions while most of the sound continues to propagate, a phenomenon called scatter. Reflection, refraction, impedance, absorption and scatter are all phenomena important for image formation in diagnostic ultrasound use. Artifacts, echoes that do not correspond to an anatomic structure but result from the physical properties of ultrasound propagation in the tissues, are also important to be aware of when using ultrasound. This phenomenon can also be of diagnostic help. One example is the acoustic shadowing of a gallstone, caused by total absorption of the sound by the stone. Diagnostic ultrasound is based on the pulse-echo principle. The smallest functional units of the transducer are the piezoelectric crystals. The crystals are embedded in the probe, and each crystal has a specific frequency. A pulse is initiated from each crystal in the probe and a longitudinal sound wave propagates through the body. Some of the energy is absorbed in the tissue and some is reflected. The reflected energy is received by the probe, which calculates the depth of the interface by measuring the time taken to return. We can say that the human body is composed of three basic materials differing in acoustic impedance: gas with a very low impedance, bone with a very high impedance and soft tissue with an impedance somewhere in between. The large mismatch between air and bone and tissue (â€Å"impedance mismatch†) causes 100% of the sound to be reflected at air/tissue interfaces and almost all the sound at bone/tissue interfaces. There is a small mismatch between different soft tissues in impedance, a fact that is the basis for diagnostic ultrasound. Different frequencies of ultrasound are used for different diagnostic examinations. Higher US frequencies (7-16 MHz) have higher resolution but are strongly absorbed by soft tissue and are therefore used for superficial structures. Very high frequencies (16- 20 MHz) will only travel for a few millimeters within tissue and are limited to intravascular and ocular examinations. Lower frequencies (3-7 MHz) are used for deeper structures, being less strongly absorbed and of lower resolution. There are different modes of displaying the amplitude of reflected sound waves: A- mode, M-mode and B-mode. A-mode (amplitude) calculates only the depth of the interface and is mainly of historical interest. M-mode (motion) is used to display moving structures and is used in cardiac ultrasound. B-mode (brightness) is the routine US image for most surgical applications. Here the returning echoes are displayed as shades of grey with the echo amplitudes represented by a grey level ranging from black to white. The individual image lines are stored, assessed and assembled on the monitor to create a two-dimensional B-mode image. Doppler ultrasound uses the Doppler effect. When US is reflected from a moving structure (i.e. blood) the frequencies of the waves change and the amount of frequency change is determined by the speed and direction of blood flow. The use of Doppler is obvious in vascular US but is also of use in other areas of diagnostic ultrasound. 2.1.2 History of Ultrasound Scientists, including Aristoteles, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Sir Isaac Newton and Leonard Euler, have been studying the phenomena of acoustics, echoes and sound waves for many centuries. It was though not until 1877 that John William Strutt, also known as Lord Rayleigh, published a description of sound as a mathematical equation in â€Å"The theory of sound† which became the foundation for the science of ultrasound. Some years later, 1880, Jaques and Pierre Curie discovered the piezo-electric effect; that an electric potential is generated when mechanical pressure is applied to a quartz crystal, an important discovery that eventually led to the development of the modern- day ultrasound transducer which contains piezoelectric crystals. The first study of the application of ultrasound as a medical diagnostic tool was published by the Austrian brothers Karl and Friedrich Dussik in 1942. They attempted to locate brain tumours and the cerebral ventricles by measuring ultrasound transmission through the skull and concluded that if imaging of the ventricles was possible, the interior of the human body could also be visualized using ultrasound. Unfortunately it was later determined by Guttner, in 1952, that the images produced by the Dussiks were variations in bone thickness. Nevertheless, their scientific work marked the beginning of diagnostic ultrasonography in the medical field and Dussik wrote in an article a decade later: †As knife and forceps in surgery, the chemical agent in chemotherapy, the high frequency electric field in diathermy and X-ray application, so has medicine taken on a new physical tool in the last decade: the ultrasonic field†. George Dà ¶ring Ludwig, working together with Francis Struther, was the first scientist to visualize gallstones, implanted in the muscles and gallbladders of dogs, with ultrasound. His studies also resulted in the finding that the mean velocity of ultrasound in soft tissue is 1540 m/sec, a discovery that was to prove very important for future research. Much of his work was however considered restricted information, because he was employed by the military, and therefore not published in medical journals. John Julian Wild and Douglass Howry were also important pioneers in the ultrasound field. Wild was a surgeon who was able to visualize bowel wall thickness with ultrasound, and he also discovered a difference in echogenicity between benign and malignant tissue. Wild also developed transrectal and transvaginal transducers and a scanning device for screening patients for breast cancer. Howry built the first B- mode scanner in 1949 and, together with the two engineers Bliss and Posanky, he also developed the first linear contact scanner. The somascope, the first circumferential scanner, built in 1954, was also developed by Howry. The problem with these scanners was that the patient had to be immobilized and immersed for a long time. In the period 1957-58 an ultrasound scanner was developed by Howry and his colleagues where the patient was strapped to the plastic window of a semicircular pan filled with saline solution. Although not immersed, the patient had still to be immobilized for a long time. Finally, in the early 1960s, Howry developed the first hand-held contact scanner, together with Wright and E Myers. During the same time Ian Donald was carrying out ultrasound research in England and 1958 he published an article that came to be a landmark, (â€Å"Investigation of abdominal masses by pulsed ultrasound†), where he describes how ultrasound changed the treatment of a woman diagnosed with advanced gastric cancer dramatically by diagnosing a cystic mass with ultrasound; the mass was later resected and found to be a benign ovarian cyst. Donald contributed significantly to the field of obstetric and gynecological ultrasound for example by discovering the urinary bladder to be a natural acoustic window for the pelvic organs and by measuring the biparietal diameter of the fetus for the first time. A century earlier the Doppler effect had been discovered by the famous Austrian scientist Christian Andreas Doppler and presented in 1842 in a paper called ÃÅ"ber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels (On the colored light of the double stars and certain other stars of the heavens). In Lund, Sweden, the principal pioneers of echocardiography Inge Edler and Carl Hellmuth Hertz, developed the first echocardiogram in October 195323 . Subsequently Hertz and Ã…sberg invented the first two-dimensional real-time cardiac imaging machine 1967 and Edler and Lindstrà ¶m registred the first simultaneous M-mode and intracardiac Doppler blood flow recordings at about the same time. Ultrasound has in the last decades developed quickly and the first digital scanners were released onto the market in 1976, providing better and reproducible images. Interventional ultrasonography dates back to 1969 when Kratochwill proposed the use of ultrasound for percutaneous drainage. Regarding ultrasound for trauma the first report of the method for evaluating blunt trauma was dated 1971, by Kristenson in Germany. The development is still going on and in the light of advances in technology leading to smaller available machines combined with the prices of machines decreasing rapidly speculations have been made about the possibility that doctors in the future will routinely be equipped with their own ultrasound stethoscope for use in their daily clinical work. 2.1.3 Ultrasound Instruments It is important to have a basic knowledge in which an ultrasound image is produced. The components of scanner include Transmitter: Emits electrical impulses that strike the transducer piezoelectric crystals and cause them to vibrate thus producing ultrasound wave. Transducer: Transducer is one which converts one form of energy to another. In ultrasound it converts electric energy to mechanical energy and viceversa. It converts the electrical energy provided by the transmitter to the acoustic pulses directed into the patient. It serves as the receiver of reflected echoes, converting weak pressure changes into electric signals for processing. Receiver: When returning echoes strike the transducer face,minute voltages are produced across the piezoelectric elements. The receiver detects and amplifies these weak signals and provides a means for compensating for the differences in echo strength which result from attenuation by different tissue thickness by control of time depth compensation. Another important function of receiver is the compression of the wide range of amplitudes returning to the transducer into a range that can be displayed to the user. Scan Processor: Processor detects and amplifies the back scattered energy and manipulates the reflected signals for display. Control Console Display: Display presents the ultrasound image or data in a form suitable for analysis and interpretation. Over the years imaging has evolved from simple A mode display to high resolution real time gray scale imaging. Recording Device: Interpretation of images and archival storage of images may be in the form of transparencies printed on film by optical or laser cameras and printers, videotape or through use of digital picture archiving and communications system (PACS). Increasingly digital storage is being used for archiving of ultrasound images. 2.1.4 Transabdominal Ultrasound, Use and Limitations Transabdominal ultrasound of the female pelvis has been the conventional approach in imaging of the female pelvis. With this approach) a full urinary bladder is required to provide a window for imaging and to displace bowel gas. Transabdominal scanning (TAS) therefore required deeper penetration and a lower frequency transducer, usually 3 -5 MHz, must be used. The resolution of images is limited by the relatively lower frequency transducer that is required, and it also has great limitations in the obese lady, especially in the elderly who often cannot hold a full bladder. In the study of uterine hemodynamics in patients who are pregnant, these disadvantages may not be very significant, because the uterine arterial signal from these patients are usually strong. However, in the non-pregnant state, especially in postmenopausal ladies, studies of uterine hemodynamics with TAS could be very difficult. 2.1.5 Transvaginal Ultrasound, Advantages and Disadvantages Widespread availability of ultrasound imaging in the past two decades has dramatically changed the practice of obstetrics and gynecology. These specialists rely heavily upon this technology to make major decisions about management of their patients. Transabdominal sonography (TAS) images the pelvic organs through the anterior abdominal wall in the supra-pubic region. A distended urinary bladder is essential to displace the bowel loops and to provide an acoustic window. There are two major limitations of TAS. First is the need to use lower frequencies for imaging due to the longer distance between the transducer and the pelvic organs. Other disadvantage is the beam degrading effect of the anterior abdominal wall especially in obese patients. Both these limitations lead to degradation in image quality. To overcome these limitations of TAS special transducers, which could be introduced in the vagina, were designed in 1985. The vaginal approach reduces the distance between the probe and the pelvic structures allowing the use of higher frequencies. Trans-vaginal sonography (TVS) produces greatly improved resolution as compared to TAS, primarily due to the higher frequencies employed and also due to the absence of beam deformation by the anterior abdominal wall, Major advantages of TVS over TAS are better image quality and avoidance of patient discomfort due to full urinary bladder. Comparison of TVS and TAS is given in Table 2.1. 2.1.5.1 Indications of TVS TVS is indicated whenever a better look at the pelvic structures is required. Common indications include the following Early pregnancy Lower uterine segment in late pregnancy Ectopic pregnancy Pelvic masses Retroverted or retroflexed uterus Obese or gaseous patient Emergency cases when bladder is empty Follicle monitoring Oocyte retrieval Endometrial study to assess suitability in IVF ET techniques Cervical canal mucous Doppler examination of pelvic organs Interventional procedures The list is not exhaustive and newer indications are continuously being added. TVSTAS Full bladder Not essential Essential Probe frequency 5-7.5 MHz 3-5 MHz Resolution Very high Moderate Field of view Small Large ContraindicationsVirgins, Vaginal obstruction Premature rupture of membraneNone interventional uses Many usesLimited role Table 2.1 Comparison of TAS and TVS 2.1.5.2 Scan Technique Once the probe and the patient have been prepared, the transducer is gradually inserted while monitoring the ultrasound image. The urinary bladders normally consistent position in the pelvis relative to much more variable position of the uterus and the ovaries makes it a good landmark to use when making initial assessment of the transducer orientation. Three basic scanning manoeuvres of the probe are useful to scan the pelvic organs comprehensively: Sagittal imaging with side to side movements, 90 ° rotation to obtain semi-coronal images with angulation of probe in vertical plane, Variation in the depth of probe insertion to bring different parts within field of view/focal zone. A pelvic survey should be done first to ascertain quickly the relative position of the uterus and ovaries as well as to identify any obvious masses. This is obtained by slowly sweeping the beam in a sagittal plane from the midline to the lateral pelvic side walls followed by turning the probe 90 degrees into corona plane and sweeping the beam from cervix to the fundus. In multi-frequency probes proper selection is important for best results. Setting of appropriate focus in electronic arrays is equally important. In mechanical sector fixed focus probes the organ of interest is brought in the focal zone by changing the depth of insertion of the probe. Proper selection of frame averaging is also important. It should be low for fast moving structures like foetal heart and high for studying solid immobile tissues. For Doppler studies a steady probe position is essential and it helps if the examiners forearm is well supported. 2.1.5.3 Dynamic uses of the TVS probe The ultrasonographic examination can be enhanced by placing a hand over the lower abdomen to bring pelvic structures within the field of view/focal range of the probe. Localisation of the point of maximal tenderness by the probe will help in identifying the cause of pain. Dense pelvic adhesions can be diagnosed by the sliding organ sign. In the absence of adhesions, the organs move freely past each other and the pelvic wall in response to pressure by the TVS probe tip. Absence of this free movement may suggest pelvic adhesions. 2.1.5.4 Interventional uses of TVS There are many interventional uses of transvaginal sonography. Newer indications are constantly being added to the list. Some of the more common ones are given below:- aspiration of ova for in vitro fertilisation (IVF) aspiration of ovarian cyst drainage of pelvic collection multi-foetal pregnancy reduction non-surgical etopic pregnancy management early amniocentesis chorion villous sampling transvaginal embryo transfer sonohysterosalpingigraphy 2.1.5.5 Limitation of TVS It should be remembered that TVS provides a more limited field of view than TAS. A survey trans-abdominal scan usually be performed prior to the TVS to rule out the possibility of overlooking a mass lying outside the field of view of the TVS transducer. To avoid the need of a full bladder it has been suggested that a TVS examination may be followed by a TAS scan with bladder empty. The rationale behind this approach is that a mass lying outside the field of view of the TVS probe will be sufficient in size to be seen trans-abdominally even if the bladder is empty. The advent of the transvaginal sonography in 1985 has had a tremendous impact on the practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. The pelvic organs can now be imaged with a resolution not possible earlier. The management of infertility due to female factors depends mainly on the TVS. Addition of Colour Doppler to TVS now gives added information about the vascular supply of various pelvic organs. Details of foetal anatomy that can be depicted by TVS are far superior to that shown by TAS. As a new technique TVS has proved very useful and has a bright future.

Catherine II and Stalin :: European History

Catherine II and Stalin Catherine II (the Great) and Joseph Stalin were both leaders of Russia that demonstrated an awareness of the West. They tried to emulate some of the elements of the West while purposely neglecting others. For this reason they were partial westernizers. Catherine the Great was very in tune with the Enlightenment and she had vast knowledge over the culture of Western Europe. Due to this she decided that her country was backward and would need to change in order for it to remain being a world power. In 1767 she assembled a Legislative Commission to help her amend the laws and government of Russia. Before this body convened, Catherine published a set of Instructions based on many of the political works of the philosophes. Other examples of her westernization exist in her plans for economic growth. She tried to halt interior barriers in trade. Also, under her reign, the exports of grain, flax, fur, and naval stores increased and she encouraged the growth of the urban middle class, which is so essential for trade. On the other hand, although it seemed as if Catherine was taking steps toward a more western future, her proposition to reform law did not occur until fifty years later. Also, she strongly supported to rights of the nobility and granted them local power over the medieval custom of serfs. Catherine never had any intention from departing from absolutism and her close rapport with the philosophes was a strategic move. She wanted them to spread the word of a progressive and modern Russia. She wanted to resemble the West but she did not want to actually be like it. Joseph Stalin was much less modern in his thought than Catherine the Great. One of the few examples of westernization under his regime was the remarkably successful Five-Year Plans. This was his vehicle for industrialization by setting goals for economic production and meeting them. Also, Stalin made peace with the Russian Orthodox Church. Although, this was more likely an attempt to gain more support during World War II than because of the kindness of his heart. However, most of Stalin's actions reflected a cruel backward mentality. Stalin's collectivization proposal made the kulaks very wealthy and also was opposed by many farmers and peasants from all social classes. First, Stalin eliminated the kulaks as a class. Then he proceeded to assassinate al dissidents and this ended up in

Casse

Reproduced from 50 Activities for Teambuilding @ Mike Woodcock, Cower, Aldershot, 1988 CAVE RESCUE BRIEFING SHEET You have been called to an emergency meeting as one of your company’s experiments in a cave has gone badly wrong. Six volunteers have been taken into a cave system in a remote part of the country, connected only by a radio link to the research station by the cave entrance. It was intended that the volunteers would spend four days underground, but they have been trapped by falling rocks and rising water.The only rescue team available tells you that rescue will be extremely difficult and only one person can be brought out each hour with the equipment at their disposal. It is likely that the rapidly rising water will drown some of the volunteers before rescue  can take place. The volunteers are aware of the dangers of their plight. They have contacted the research  station  using radio link and said that they are unwilling to take a decision as to the sequence b y which they will be rescued. The responsibility for making this decision now rests with your committee.Lifesaving equipment will arrive in fifty minutes at the cave entrance and you will need to advise the team of the order for rescue by completing the ranking sheet. The only information you have available is drawn from the project files and is reproduced on the volunteer personal details sheet. You may use any criteria  you think fit to help you make  a decision. Volunteer 1: Helen Helen is 34 years old and a housewife. She has four children aged between 7 months and 8 years. Her hobbies are ice skating and cooking. She lives in a pleasant house in Gloucester, and was born in England.Helen is known to have developed a romantic and sexual relationship with another volunteer (Owen). Volunteer 2: Tozo Tozo is 19 years  old and a sociology student at Keele University. She is the daughter of wealthy Japanese parents who live in Tokyo. Her father is an industrialist who is also a national authority on traditional Japanese mime theatre. Tozo is unmarried but has several high-born suitors as she is outstandingly attractive. She has recently been the subject of a TV documentary on Japanese womanhood and flower arranging. Volunteer 3: JobeJobe is a man of 41 years and was born in Central Africa. He is a minister of religion whose life’s work has been devoted  to the social and  political evolution  of African peoples. Jobe is a member of the Communist Party and has paid several visits to the USSR in recent years. He is married with seven children whose ages range from 6 years to 19 years. His hobby is playing in a jazz band. Volunteer 4:Owen Owen is an unmarried man of 27 years. As a short-commission army officer he spent part of his service in Northern Ireland where, as an undercover agent, he received special recognition.Since returning to civilian life he has been unsettled and drinking has become a persistent problem. At present he is a Youth Ad venture Leader, devoting much energy to helping young people and leading caving groups. His recreation is driving sports cars. He lives in Brecon, South Wales. Volunteer 5: Paul Paul is a man of 42 who has been divorced for six years. His ex-wife is now happily re-married. He was born in Scotland, but now lives in Richmond, Surrey. Paul works as a medical research scientist at the Hammersmith Hospital and he is recognized as a world authority on the treatment of rabies.He has recently developed a low-cost treatment which could be self administered. Much of this research data is still in his working notebooks. Unfortunately, Paul has experienced some emotional difficulties in recent years and has twice been convicted of indecent behaviour. The last occasion was 11 months ago. His hobbies are classical music, opera and sailing. Volunteer 6: Edward Edward is a man of 59 years. He is General Manager of a factory producing rubber belts for machines. The factory employs 71 persons. He is a prominent in local society.He is married with two children who have their own families and have moved away from his home. Edward has recently returned from Poland where he was personally responsible for promoting a contract to supply large numbers of  industrial belts over a five year period. This contract, if signed, would mean work for another 25 people. Edward’s hobbies include collecting antique guns and he intends to write a book about Civil War Armaments on his retirement. He is  also a strong cricket supporter. CAVE RESCUE REVIEW SHEET ORDER OF RESCUE -INDIVIDUAL RANKINGS NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 ORDER OF RESCUE- GROUP RANKINGS NAME 1 2 3 4 5 6 Download

Ottawa Charter on Smoking Essay

â€Å"Smoking rates among the general population have declined dramatically in the past decades†. (Cancer Council NSW) This can be largely attributed to effective health promotion. Explain how health promotion initiatives based on the Ottawa Charter have contributed to positive health outcomes in the area of tobacco use. (450 – 600 words) The Ottawa Charter is a global health promotion run by the World Health Organisation. It involves five action areas: developing personal skills, creating supportive environments, strengthening community action, reorienting health services and building healthy public policies. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), in 2011-12, there were 2. 8 million Australians aged 18 years and over who smoked daily (16. 1%). Just over half (51. 1%) of adults reported that they had never smoked, nearly one third (31. 0%) were ex-smokers and the remaining 1. 8% smoked, but less often than daily. Rates of daily smoking have decreased consistently over the past decade, from 18. 9% in 2007-08 and 22. 4% in 2001. Decreases in smoking rates have occurred across all age groups, and particularly amongst people aged less than 45 years. ] The goal for Australia is to reduce the amount of people who smoke to 8% or less, and these results so far have revealed success in this goal. Developing personal skills supports personal and social development by using information and resources that educate health benefits to enhance life skills. In gaining these skills individuals can make informed decisions to take control of their lives. Strategies employed by the National tobacco Campaign 2011 to address the issue of cancer/disease have so far been successful in getting their point across, such as the Quitline campaign, and one of its many supporting advertisements. ] This advertisement uses shock tactics and the easy to understand analogy of the sponge soaking up the cigarette smoke instead of air forces the smokers to really think about what they are consuming. The end catch line â€Å"it’s enough to make you sick†¦really sick† makes the smoker realise what they are doing to themselves, and the ads final urge to call the Quitline is more likely to be acted upon out of fear. This means that all the responsibility of the smoker’s actions, and the consequences of them, are theirs. Creating supportive environments and strengthening community actions are two aspects of the Ottawa Charter that go hand in hand, as the community needs to come together to create a supportive environment for the smokers. There has been great success in these areas recently through Clean up Australia Day having a specific day to clean up cigarette butts. This woke up many Australian communities as to how big the epidemic of smoking is. An estimated seven billion butts are littered around Australia annually. [] This statistic was recorded in 2009, and was expected to reduce by 25% by 2015. Reorienting health services and building healthy public policy need help from the government to fulfil the Ottawa Charter’s suggestions of how to rectify the problems. Through the cancer council and the new laws about not smoking: within 10 metres of children’s play equipment in outdoor public spaces, spectator areas at sports grounds or other recreational areas, railway platforms, light rail stops, light rail stations, bus stops, taxi ranks and ferry wharves and within four metres of a pedestrian access point to a public building. ] These new laws aim to eradicate smoking from individual’s daily lives, and heavy fines are a punishment for any offence. Smoking has been something that people do at social gatherings and for recreation for a very long time, and used to be presumed as â€Å"cool†. Now that all the research has been performed to show how dangerous smoking is, and the Ottawa Charter has helped make smoking â€Å"uncool† and â€Å"gross†, people have woken up and have had success taking action against their addictions.